However, a variety of production routes originating from different ore types for both metals exists they may vary considerably with respect to the environmental impacts due to technology and the location of production sites.
The main contribution to these environmental impacts comes from upstream processes related to the extraction and beneficiation of nickel and cobalt. Notably, cathode materials based on nickel and cobalt, like nickel manganese cobalt (NMC), nickel cobalt aluminum (NCA) and lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), have been identified to be associated with largest environmental burdens.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies of lithium-ion batteries have shown that the nature of the active cathode materials significantly influences the environmental impacts of the battery. Lithium-ion batteries are crucial components of electric vehicles with respect to the technical performance of the vehicles and the environmental impacts of the vehicle life cycle.
